Five of these are located to the east of the pyramid and were a sort of model; these brick-lined boat shaped elements were probably intended for use in the Afterlife to transport the king to stellar destinations. Often, however, as with Khufu, the pits were simply boat shaped models rather than containing actual boats. Reconstructed funerary boat of Khufu Photo: Dr. Amy Calvert. In addition to his boat pits, however, on the south side of the pyramid Khufu had two massive, rectangular stone-lined pits that contained completely disassembled boats.
One of these has been removed and reconstructed. This cedar boat measures These boats appear to have been used for the the last earthly voyage of the king—his funerary procession—before being dismantled and interred. Limestone block from the Pyramid of Khufu. The limestone is very-grained and composed mainly of calcite as the essential component associated with rare amounts of iron oxides, microcrystalline quartz and opaque minerals.
Texture: very fine to coarse-grained, showing prophyrtic texture fine to medium-grained of quartz, gypsum and rock fragments enclosed in very fine-grained matrix. Significant amounts of irregular pore space are detected in the sample. Mineral composition: The sample is composed of gypsum, anhydrite and rock fragments composed mainly of calcite associated with minor amounts of quartz, biotite, iron oxides and opaques cemented by very fine-grained matrix of gypsum admixed with calcite, anhydrite, halite and iron oxides.
Quartz occurs as fine to medium-grained of rounded to subangular outlines and some of which are cracked. Quartz grains are cemented by a mixture of very fine-grained cement matrix. Rock fragments are represented by limestone, gypsum and anhydrite which occur as medium-grained and rounded to subangular in sample. Significant amounts of irregular pore space and cavities vugs are detected in the sample Fig.
Microscopic photograph shows the structural mortars joining the backing limestone blocks of Chephren pyramid. Very fine to coarse-grained, showing prophyrtic texture fine to medium-grained of quartz, gypsum and rock fragments enclosed in very fine-grained matrix. The sample is composed of gypsum, anhydrite and rock fragments composed mainly of calcite associated with minor amounts of quartz, biotite, iron oxides and opaques cemented by very fine-grained matrix of gypsum admixed with calcite, anhydrite, halite and iron oxides.
Texture: the rock is medium to coarse-grained showing, equigranular, hypidiomorphic, perthitic and piokilitic texture. Mineral composition: the rock is composed mainly of potash feldspar microcline, orthoclase and perthite , quartz and plagioclase associated with considerable amounts of hornblende and biotite and accessory amount of muscovite, titanite, zircon and opaque minerals. Potash feldspar microcline, orthoclase and perthite is the most abundant constituent of the whole rock.
It is medium to coarse-grained, generally subhedral to anhedral crystals and slightly altered to clay minerals. Plagioclase replaces and forms fine lamellae perthitic intergrowths over microcline showing perthitic texture. Quartz is an essential mineral constituent occurs as fine to coarse-grained, anhedral crystals. It also presents as crystal aggregates that fill in the interstitial spaces between feldspar crystals. Quartz shows stretched, sutured, fractured and curved boundaries due to mild deformation process.
Plagioclase is medium to coarse-grained, subhedral platy in form and shows distinct lamellar twinning. Plagioclase is slightly altered to sericite. It presents also as irregular lamellae, thin films and fine inclusions intergrowths in microcline perthite. Hornblende presents as fine to medium-grained aggregates, prismatic crystals in association with biotite. Biotite occurs in minor amount as medium to fine-grained aggregates, tabular, flaky crystals at the interstices of feldspars and quartz.
It is partially altered to iron oxides Fig. Microscopic photograph shows the facing granite, plutonic, acidic igneous rock blocks of Mykerinos pyramid. The rock is medium to coarse-grained showing, equigranular, hypidiomorphic, perthitic and piokilitic texture.
The rock is composed mainly of potash feldspar microcline, orthoclase and perthite , quartz and plagioclase associated with considerable amounts of hornblende and biotite and accessory amount of muscovite, titanite, zircon and opaque minerals.
Alteration: the rock is affected by mild deformed and slightly alteration. Alteration products are clay minerals and sericite after potash feldspars and plagioclase. Hornblende and biotite are moderately altered to iron oxides. Quartz frequently shows curved boundaries and fractured, stretched and sutured due to mild deformation process.
Opaque minerals: are minor amount, forming fine-grained dissemination in the rock. Opaques show common association with biotite and hornblende.
Significant amount of microfossils of different sizes and shapes are present in the matrix. Mineral composition: the rock is composed mainly of calcite as the essential component associated with minor amount of iron oxides and rare amounts of quartz, gypsum and opaque minerals.
Iron oxides occur in considerable amount as fine-grained aggregates and also as patches stained some parts of the sample. The rock is highly stained by iron oxides Fig. A somewhat higher porosity can be observed, which is due to the many open fossil interspaces. Further, a denser structure of the many small nummulites, discocyclinae, and other fossil remains is evident.
Microscopic photograph shows the backing Fossiliferous limestone Biomicrite blocks of Mykerinos pyramid. The rock is very fine to fine-grained. The rock is composed mainly of calcite as the essential component associated with minor amount of iron oxides and rare amounts of quartz, gypsum and opaque minerals. Determination of the specific fossiliferious limestone weight; the real specific weight using Gibertini E42 scale and pycnometer and the bulk density using Gibertini E42 scale and caliper.
Results are summarized in Table Five cylindrical specimens of backing limestone blocks were collected from the Khufu pyramid and verified to determine the characterization of pore media for this fossil limestone [ 29 ]. Note that: the distribution of the pore diameter of the basic sandstone blocks is, 10—20A 0. Weathering is associated with structural properties, such as weak physical and mechanical properties of geometry, chemical composition, and the presence of soluble salts in porous systems of building stones and structural mortars that are considered the binding agents for building elements in the history of structures.
The durability of this limestone is moderate due to the weakness of binding material among the calcite grains. This moderate stone strength seriously affects the integrity of great hierarchical structures under constant and seismic loading conditions [ 34 , 35 ].
In order to maintain consistency, all the samples were cored to 50 mm in diameter using the same block of Fossilferious limestone at the same orientation. Of all the tests carried out, the test of the compressive strength of the stones is very important, as this value is used by structural design engineers to assess the stability and structural conditions.
The compressive strength is the maximum load per unit area that the stone can bear without crushing. A higher compressive strength indicates that the stone can withstand a higher crushing load.
To determine the compressive strength, at least 5 specimens are tested in ASTM Each face must be perfectly flat and they must be parallel or perpendicular with each other. Faces must be smooth with no tool marks and there should be no nicks at the corners. Fifteen samples were equipped with electric strain gauges with a length of mm.
Vertical pressure was gradually increased pressure until failure. Table 11 shows the compressive strength results of the five backing limestone samples collected from the Cheops pyramid.
The average elastic modulus obtained for the five tested cylinders is The results are shown in Table Figure 22 shows the uniaxial and triaxial compression testing set up. The average elastic modulus obtained for the five cylinders tested is The results are given in Tables 13 and The results are given in Tables 15 and The low compressive strength of Mykerinos backing limestone specimens are due to its higher porosity which has be observed by mentioned thin sections.
The high porosity may be due to the many open fossil interspaces. Further, a denser structure of the many small nummulites, discocyclinae, and other fossil remains is evident and reduced its stiffness and strength, see Fig. The physical and mechanical properties of the construction materials of the three great pyramids are retreated because the area was subjected to intensive seasonal rainfall and evaporation in temperature Mediterranean climate conditions. The modeling of properties indicates a reliable relationship between the various visible pores and uniaxial compression force parameters that can be applied to predict and characterize limestone formations elsewhere.
Fifteen cylinders were tested to determine the average split tensile strength of the fossil limestone of the three great pyramids. The split tensile strength of the collected backing limestone specimens from of the great pyramid of Khufu is ranges from 1. The limestone tensile strength of the collected backing limestone specimens from of the pyramid of Chephren pyramid ranges from 1.
The limestone tensile strength of the collected backing limestone specimens collected from the pyramid of Mykerinos is ranges from 2. Tables 11 , 13 and 15 give details of test results. Fifteen cylinders were tested in single shear to determine the shear strength parameters of the filling limestone from the three great pyramids. The obtained shear strength for the backing limestone from Cheops pyramids equal 1.
The obtained shear strength for the backing limestone from Chephren pyramid equal 1. The obtained shear strength for the backing limestone from Mykerinos pyramid equal 0. Tables 11 , 13 and 15 summarize the results of shear test. Ultrasonic pulse velocity testing, mainly used to measure the sound velocity of the stones and hence the compressive strength of the stones.
Measurement of longitudinal sound wave velocity can be an indication of the depth of crack observed on the surface. The aim of the study here was to associate the velocity of sound with different mechanical properties [ 37 ].
P-wave velocities were measured by the Pundit CNS portable non-destructive ultrasonic indicator tester , which has two 65 kHz transducers transmitter and receiver. The backing limestone samples of the Cheops pyramid recorded low speed 3. Limestone samples from the Chephren pyramid recorded low speed 4. Figure 24 represent the test results. Modeling of the characteristics as shown in Fig.
In general, the rebound hammer is used to determine the quality of concrete and rock formations [ 38 , 39 ].
The Schmidt hammer method is one of the nondestructive testing techniques and is frequently adopted for evaluating the quality of in situ historic masonry structures.
Whereas in this study, an attempt was made to assess the local compressive strength of limestone as a measure of the non-destructive test method. This approach requires extensive study and will be useful in the long term to test the heritage structures made of stones [ 40 , 41 ]. The Schmidt L-Type hammer of impact energy of 0.
The hammer was transferred and 30 effects were performed on each sample. The hammer is forced against the surface of the stone block by the spring and the distance of rebound is measured on a scale. The test surface was horizontal and vertical.
Rebound Hammer test was carried out on selected structural backing limestone blocks. It serves as a tool to compare the strength of the existing structures. It gives a good indication on the limestone blocks surface hardness, which is reflective of the stone surface quality and strength. The geochemical properties of the samples are medium and all are closely related. The values of the Schmidt hammer for the backing limestone blocks of the Khufu pyramid vary between RN 25 and 37; the results are given in Table The values of the Schmidt hammer for the backing limestone blocks of the Chephren pyramid vary between RN 24 and 36; the results are given in Table The values of the Schmidt hammer for the backing limestone blocks of the Mykerinos pyramid vary between RN 17 and 25; the results are given in Table The modeling of the characteristics as shown in Fig.
AIV was used as a standard test by which the aggregate impact strength was achieved. Fifteen tested limestone samples from the three pyramids are exposed to 15 hammer hits falling mm, at an interval of at least one second.
The shock strength of 15 hammer drops drops recorded very low values below 13 indicating poor limestone of the backing blocks of the Khufu pyramid, as shown in Table The impact strength of 15 hammer drops drops recorded very low values below 12 indicating poor limestone for the backing blocks of the Chephren Pyramid, as shown in Table The shock strength of 15 hammer drops drops recorded low values below 9 indicating poor limestone for the backing stone blocks of the Mykerinos pyramid, as shown in Table Table 17 summarizes the main physical characteristics of the joining mortars between backing limestone blocks from the three great pyramids.
For the Capillarity Coefficient of structural mortars, the samples were first submitted to the water absorption tests using the technique of capillary absorption by contact, which was developed and calibrated previously. The capillarity coefficient obtained by this test gives an idea of the compacity and consequently of the state of conservation of samples. Moreover, it is a non-destructive test introducing no changes to historic samples.
The main esults are summarized in Table The pyramids complex suffered from different types of structural damage and construction materials decay and disintegration. In recent years, the great pyramids of the year-old at Giza plateau, Cheops Khufu , Chephren Khafre , Mykerinos Menkaure and the Great Sphinx have been threatened by rising groundwater levels caused by water infiltration from the suburbs, Irrigation canals and mass urbanization surrounding Giza pyramids plateau GPP.
The presence of building materials under investigation with great physical sensitivity to structural damage and weathering factors, especially dynamic procedures and high seismic events. This study involved collection of intact stones and mortars samples without any damage but scattered on the floor; in situ testing of intact stones on the standing walls using non-destructive tests and carrying out laboratory testing of collected stone samples for assessment of strength characteristics.
The multi-criteria analysis allowed the integration of several elements to map areas and zones at risk. The detailed analytical study proved that these pyramids complexes are built of natural building materials, for the three pyramids complex, the filling or backing stones blocks are Fossiliferous limestone had been quarried and transported from Giza quarries that lie only a couple of m south of the great pyramid, east of Khafre and south-east of the Mynkaure pyramid.
The rock-cut trench west and north of the Khafre pyramid yielded an enormous amount of stone material, which was incorporated directly into the core masonry.
The outer casing stone blocks for Cheops, great pyramid are white fine limestone were quarried and transported from Mokkatam Formations in particular from Tura quarry. The outer casing stone blocks for the Mykerinos, pyramid is granite was imported from Aswan quarry. The structural mortars joining the backing stone blocks of Cheops and Chephren pyramids are Gypsum mortars while is lime based mortar for the Mykerinos pyramid.
The most of the casing stone blocks were destroyed and fell down in the A. C earthquake and were reused for the construction of many Coptic and Islamic historic buildings in Cairo. The study presented a detailed view of the geochemical and engineering properties of the materials used in the construction of the three pyramids complex stones and structural mortars and the weathering and erosion factors that affect their durability and sustainability. The present study indicates the dependence of mechanical properties on the physical and petrochemical properties of the studied building materials.
Character modeling indicates a reliable relationship between different parameters. The study revealed the existence of an original hill of large volume under the two great pyramids.
The volume of this original hill is about Further site investigations are required to assess foundation details, bearing capacity and stability calculations for each section or segment of the pyramid complex. Concentrated strengthening and structural retrofitting intervention are therefore essential and necessary for preservation of the pyramids complex. The structural and non-structural measures recommended in this research will help decision makers and planners to develop effective site management strategies in the future, modify the modernization and structural rehabilitation of this unique archaeological site.
A perched groundwater table might exist in the elevated area toward the west and southwest. Great care must be taken regarding the impact of mass urbanization in the western Great Pyramids of Giza, which may affect the groundwater model in the region, see Fig. Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study. Lehner M, Hawass Z. Giza and the pyramids. London: Thames and Hudson; Google Scholar. Lehner M. The complete pyramids.
Solving the ancient mysteries. Fakhry A. The pyramids. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; Learning from the past: the Ancient Egyptians and geotechnical engineering.
In: Proc. Klemm D, Klemm R. The stones of the Pyramids. Hemdan G. Four volumes. Cairo: Dar el-Helal Publications; Shallow geophysical techniques to investigate the groundwater table at the Great Pyramids of Giza, Egypt. Geosci Instrum Method Data Syst. Article Google Scholar. Geo-environmental and structural problems of the first successful true pyramid, Snefru Northern Pyramid in Dahshur, Egypt. Geotech Geol Eng.
Geological and geomorphological study of the original hill at the base of Fourth Dynasty Egyptian monuments. Mahmoud SS. Pyramids plateau, landforms and problems, Geographic Research Series. Cairo: Egyptian Geographic Society; Structural setting of the Giza pyramids plateau and the effect of fractures and other factors on the stability of its monumental parts, Egypt.
Ann Geol Surv. Omara SM. The structural features of the Giza pyramids area. Yehia MA. Geologic structures of the Giza pyramids plateau. Sci Res Ser. J Afr Earth Sci. Petri F. Pyramids and temples of Gizeh.
Eyth M. Der Kampf um die Cheopspyramide. Dormion G. Badawy A. Historical seismicity of Egypt. Acta Geodaetica et Geophysica Hungarica. Morsy S, Halim M. Reasons why the great pyramids of Giza remain the only surviving wonder of the ancient world: drawing ideas from the structure of the Giza pyramids to nuclear power plants.
J Civil Eng Archit. Jia J. Soil dynamics and foundation modeling: offshore and earthquake engineering. Heidelberg: Springer; Seismic requalification of geotechnical structures. Indian Geotech J.
Ansell R, Taber J. Caught in the crunch: earthquakes and volcanoes in New Zealand. Auckland: HarperCollins; Ambraseys NN. Maraveas C. Assessment and restoration of an earthquake-damaged historical masonry building. Front Built Environ. Evaluation of liquefaction potential associated with the Dahshour earthquake, Egypt. Bull Faculty Sci Zagazig Univ. Fergany EA, Sawda S. Seismol Res Lett. Earthquakes activity and earthquake risk around Alexandria.
Jpn Bull Liege. Sykora W. Examination of existing shear wave velocity and shear modulus correlations in soils. Vicksburg: U. Neotectonic and seismic regionalization of Egypt. Bull llSEE. Heyman J. The stone skeleton. Int J Solids Struct. Khufu's full name was Khnum-Khufwy, which means '[the god] Khnum protect me'. He was the son of Sneferu and Queen Hetepheres I, and is believed to have had three wives.
He is famous for building the Great Pyramid at Giza, one of the seven wonders of the world, but apart from this, we know very little about him. His only surviving statue is, ironically, the smallest piece of Egyptian royal sculpture ever discovered: a 7.
Khufu came to the throne, probably during his twenties, and at once began work on his pyramid. The entire project took about 23 years to complete, during which time 2,, building blocks, weighing an average of 2. His nephew Hemiunu was appointed head of construction for the Great Pyramid.
Khufu was the first pharaoh to build a pyramid at Giza.
0コメント